From Unity to Separation: Milestones in Sudan’s Tumultuous History

1947 Juba Conference

South Sudanese chiefs agree for the South to be part of independence Sudan provided Sudan adopts a federal system.

1955 Torit Mutiny

On 17th August 1955, Satarino Lohure, Emilio Tafeng, Ali Ghabtala and others from Equatorian Cop, rebelled in Torit in Southern Sudan and let to the killing of 261 northern Sudanese (including women and children), and 75 Southerners. The rebellion was sparked by an order to move the Equatorian Cop to the North in an atmosphere of great mistrust, a few months before Sudan declared its independence on first January 1956. The rebellion was considered by Sudan’s rulers as a mere security issue and believed they had crashed it at the bud.

January 1956

Sudan declared independence in parliament. South Sudanese voted in favor of Sudan independence from Britain and Egypt and were promised confederation. This was later dishonored.

1958-1964

General Ibrahim Aboud military dictator rules Sudan. He pursued a vigorous and repressive Islamisation and Arabisation programme for the South as a way of imposing unity (a sort of reverse colonization). In 1962 all Christian missionaries were expelled from the South.

1964-1969

Sudan second democratic era. Marked by continued repression of the South. Important events: Popular uprising against military dictatorship and its ousting on 21 October 1964. Round Table Conference to discuss the problem of the South (1965). South Sudanese called for right to self-determination. This was rejected by Northern parties. Round table collapsed. Assassination of William Deng Nhial (one of founders of South Sudan Liberation Movement and leader of Sudan African Nationalist Union - SANU) in 1967, many massacres in South Sudanese cities by Sudan army.

May 25, 1969

Second military coup led by General Jafar Mohamed Nimeiry against the civilian democratic rule. Nimeiry's May Regime was born that ruled Sudan with iron fist for 17 years (until April 1984 when it was toppled by popular uprising).

February 1972 to June 1983

Addis Ababa agreement signed by the May Regime with the South Sudan Liberation Movement (popularly known as Anya Nya). South Sudan gained autonomous government led in succession by Abel Alier (1972-78), Joseph Lagu (1978-79), Peter Gatkuoth (1979-80), Abel Alier (1980-81), Gismalla Rassas (1981-82) and Joseph James Tambura (1982-83).

1983

General Nimeiry abrogate Addis Ababa Agreement with the South in July 1983. Ended the autonomy and redivided power in the South into 3 regions accountable to Khartoum. Imposed Sharia Islamic Laws in September 1983 in whole Sudan.

May 16, 1983

Bor Mutiny led by former Anya officer, Major Kerubino Kuanyin Bol followed by Ayod Mutiny in June 1983 led by William Nyuon Bany.

Sudan People's Liberation Army/Sudan People's Liberation Movement was formed in Ethiopia led by Colonel Dr. John Garang de Mabior. It defined the Southern Problems as a Sudanese Problem whose roots are based in marginalization of peripheries by minority clique regime in Khartoum. It resolved to wage a protracted war for a united democratic and secular new Sudan.

1984

May Regime was toppled by popular uprising in April 1984. Third democratic era began. Sadiq El Mahadi became the elected prime minister of Sudan in 1986.

June 1989:

1989 Islamic Salvation Revolution, led by Omer El Bashir, marked a significant shift in Sudan’s political trajectory. This military coup overthrew the civilian government and imposed an authoritarian regime, effectively banning political parties and curbing democratic freedoms. The coup ushered in an era of intensified Islamist policies and further alienated marginalized regions, including the South.

1991 Nasir Declaration

August, SPLM split. Riek Machar and Lam Akol led the breakaway wing (later formed SPLA-United). The break away called for self-determination of the South as a solution to North-South war. They held talks with the Sudanese Salvation Regime in Frankfort in January 1992.

1992

The SPLM conference in Chukudum resolved that self-determination will be part of its agenda.

1994 September

Nairobi Declaration of Principles signed. Acknowledged self-determination for people of South Sudan if need be. It formed the basis of Naivasha Peace Agreement (CPA) in January 2005.

1994 December

Asmara Declaration. Northern parties allied to SPLM accept the right to self-determination for South Sudan after giving unity a chance.

1997

The Khartoum Peace Agreement (KPA) was signed between the government of Sudan and South Sudan Independent Movement (SSIM). Two years later SSIM splintered and KPA began to collapse.

1998

A famine devastated large parts of greater Bahr El Ghazal. The worst in its history.

2002

Machokos Protocol signed by Salva Kiir Mayardit and Government of Sudan representative. Recognised the right to self-determination of the people of South Sudan. Other protocols followed until November 2004. Cease fire declared.

2005

Sudan Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed on January 9, 2005. July 10, 2005, Dr John Garang De Mabior sworn in as First Vice President and President of Government of South Sudan. July 30, 2005, John Garang killed in helicopter crash on way from Uganda. Succeeded by Salva Kiir Mayardit.

2008

The Hague Arbitration Court ruled on Abyei boundary on 22 July 2008.

2009

Sudan multiparty election conducted in April 2009. Results dominated by the National Congress in the North and Sudan People Liberation Movement in the South.

2011

South Sudan Referendum takes place on 9th January 2011 and closed today 15th January 2011. Results will start to appear on 20th January 2011.

Conclusion:

The historical trajectory of Sudan and South Sudan reveals a narrative steeped in struggle, resilience, and the pursuit of self-determination. From the Juba Conference in 1947, where hopes for a federal system were raised, to the eventual declaration of South Sudan’s independence in 2011, the region’s history is marked by repeated betrayals of trust, political upheavals, and persistent marginalization of the South.

The series of mutinies, coups, and agreements reflect the deep-seated issues of governance, cultural identity, and equitable resource distribution that plagued the Sudanese state. Efforts like the Addis Ababa Agreement in 1972 and the Comprehensive Peace Agreement in 2005 showed glimpses of reconciliation but were often undermined by political ambition and instability.

Ultimately, the referendum of 2011 became a watershed moment, granting South Sudan its long-sought independence. However, the legacy of decades-long conflict underscores the challenges of forging lasting peace and prosperity. This timeline not only highlights the importance of addressing historical grievances but also emphasizes the ongoing need for dialogue, unity, and leadership to build a stable future for both nations.